They appear between the affected area and adjacent, less-affected areas (NFPA 2014). 2012). 2013). These tests produced the first published data that supported fire patterns as being useful in fire investigation. Springer Nature. Therefore, determining if and when the fire transitions from a fuel-controlled to a ventilation-controlled condition is an important distinction. This misconception persists despite the warnings from both the fire science and fire investigation communities (Shanley et al. Furthermore, this process has not been widely tested for reliability or validity. (0.787m2.032m) and was opened to the exterior for the entire duration of the test. Identifying the cause of the damage is complicated by the fact that the investigator has to use evidence after the event, such as the location and magnitude of damage, compartment geometry, ventilation openings and the position and number of fuels as a means to identify the range of initial conditions that may have influenced how the fire developed. However, if the fire were to remain in fuel-controlled conditions, it is not expected that this slight change in the damage from the plume would be sufficient to cause an erroneous conclusion as to the cause of the damage. This can help determine the origin point. The first identified process was published in 1955 (Straeter and Crawford 1955). flaming combustion detached from the fuel item or package), High Temperature lining surfaces Radiant heat transfer (absorption/reflection). In this work, the authors outlined a system that described char as being on a range from Number 0 Char up to Number 10 Char, with number 10 char as representing the greatest level of damage. For example, the clean burn effect requires wall temperatures to reach approximately 450500C and should be evaluated as possibly exposed to a plume (Stratakis and Stamatelos 2003). First, a poor assumption by many of the fire investigation guides, textbooks and research was that every investigator is able to visibly assess varying DOFD equally (Shanley et al. Furthermore, average fire gas temperatures have been related to the ventilation factor compared to the total surface area of the compartment, commonly denoted by \( {A}_v\sqrt{H_v}/{A}_T. 2003). The concept of fire patterns for this review has been broken into four components that better assist in evaluating their effectiveness in determining an area of origin. Fire Sci Rev 4, 4 (2015). In one of these tests it was found that other burn patterns in the flashover tests showed similar misleading patterns from asymmetric burning of a television set, with the most damage on the side away from the origin of the fire to patterns on the gypsum walls indicating a V-pattern pointing to a television stand and associated electronics (Hoffmann et al. Given the history of using fire patterns within the fire investigation profession, it was reasonable that they would also be included in the first edition (1992), and all subsequent editions of NFPA 921 Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. One of the 11 NWCG categories of fire pattern indicators. 2008). The correct term for this fire pattern is an irregularly shaped fire pattern. Because of this, the problem of using fire damage to determine how the fire developed is considered an inverse problem. The researchers consequently provide guidance to investigators on how to resolve this situation by saying it is necessary to pay particular attention to low burns and shadow effects on room furnishings (Custer and Wright 1984). 1997). Additional comparison and control samples were generated using ignitable liquid pours that achieved post-flashover conditions without use of the burner, but with the burner in place to maintain test consistency. Forensic science is defined as the application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to the legal system, including both criminal and civil actions (Houck and Siegel 2006). Arco Publishing Company, New York (USA), Benner L (1975) Accident Theory and Accident Investigation. A substantial degree of damage is often times found directly adjacent to or opposite of window and door openings. The scene investigators most important hypothesis is the correct identification of the origin of the fire (NFPA 2014). The final two tests were performed after multiple television sets and electronic appliances were placed on wood stands and on the floor in a burn room containing an upholstered chair and area rugboth of these tests were allowed to progress into full-room involvement and were not extinguished until 4min past flashover (Hoffmann et al. 1, 4th edn. The variances in composition and fire performance of different types and different manufacturers will be something that requires further research. Mass loss of the furniture items was measured at the end of each test and was showed to relate well to the area of origin. An upholstered sofa and upholstered chair were located in adjacent corners across the room from each other with a coffee table in between. The lack of damage has often times been overlooked in most discussions related to fire patterns. three dimensional fire patterns displayed on both horizontal and vertical services. Putorti reported, comparisons of the conditions of the rooms and furnishings after the experiments resulted in the determination of several similarities, as well as many differences, between experiments with the same method of ignition (Putorti 1997). The presence of a ventilation opening is necessary. Babrauskas (1981) reports on ignition of secondary items based on burning a series of common residential fuels and evaluating the heat flux to transducers at varying lateral distances. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 4:5558, Crofton, MD, Steckler K, Quintiere J, Rinkinen W (1982) Flow Induced by Fire in a Compartment. This section of the literature review focuses on the use of fire patterns and fire pattern generation to identify an area of origin. Pearson, New Jersey (USA), DeHaan J (1987) Are Localized Burns Proof of Flammable Liquid Accelerants? Fire plumes against wall surfaces have shown to have moderate heat fluxes ranging from 40 to 80kW/m2, while heat fluxes measured in tests with objects immersed in diffusion flames range between 75 and 200kW/m2 Heskestad (1982); (Qian and Saito 1992; Dillon 1998; Lattimer 2008). Several studies concerning ventilation-controlled fires throughout the years have introduced a concept of a ventilation factor (\( {A}_v\sqrt{h_v} \)) and illustrated the importance of ventilation openings on a fires growth by analyzing the size of ventilation openings, locations of these openings within the compartment and the shear mixing that occurs at the interface of the opening (Kawagoe 1958; Thomas and Heslden 1972; Harmathy 1972; Thomas and Bennets 1999; Utiskul 2007; Sugawa et al. 2013). Safety, Security And Emergency Management | Safety, Security . Ultimately, the locations of damage and fire patterns are compared to the causal factors from the physics of the fire, alternative causes and background information. This same damage near the drywall seams was identified in the Claflin study (2014) (Fig. 1989; Quintiere 1995). The ventilation-controlled conditions did not result in any upper layer damage that was discernable, therefore it will not be considered here. A new method of using digital image analysis may also work in increasing the objectivity of identifying varying DOFD (Riahi et al. NFPA 921s original definition stated fire patterns are the physical effects that are visible or measurable remaining after a fireincluding thermal effects on materials, such as charring, oxidation, consumption of combustibles, smoke and soot deposits, distortion, melting, color changes, changes in the character of materials, structural collapse and other effects (NFPA 1992). The varying damage was given many terms by fire investigators and is reflected within the literature, including: fire patterns, burn patterns, indicators, burn indicators, fire fingerprints, fire transfer patterns and a variety of geometric shapes. 1997; NFPA 2014; Gottuk and White 2008). Surface effect is the result of the nature and material of the surface which contains the fire pattern, affecting the actual shape of the lines of demarcation displayed, or increasing These tests were not conducted within a compartment. A survey conducted in 2012 reflected similar findings to that of the NCFS survey where 586 fire investigators revealed that 50% had a bachelors degree or higher, of which only 18% were related to science or engineering (Tinsley and Gorbett 2013). Wood stud wall with varying DOFD char damage, Depth of char contour plot of wood stud wall depicted in Fig. Many of the studies contend that this process assists investigators in determining the correct area of origin (Shanley et al. The only method that appears to be systematized and examples provided was the truncated cone method in conjunction with the heat and flame vector analysis (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). Smoke patterns are deposits of carbon on walls and ceilings, carried there in the heat plume. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 2014). Created by. 1997). They confirmed that 6.6lbf (3kgf) of force was best at matching the Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) chemical analysis of dehydration found in the Mann and Putaansuu study (2010). Department of Fire Protection Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA, 01609, USA, Gregory E Gorbett,Brian J Meacham,Christopher B Wood&Nicholas A Dembsey, Department of Fire Protection and Paramedicine Sciences, Fire, Arson and Explosion Investigation Program, Eastern Kentucky University, 521 Lancaster Avenue, Richmond, KY, 40475, USA, FireLink, LLC, 1501 Main Street, Suite 17, Tewksbury, MA, 01876, USA, You can also search for this author in Riahi studied the soot deposition characteristics of three different fuels in bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum wallboard lined wall (Riahi and Beyler 2011; Riahi 2012; Riahi et al. Also, damage may be found near the unsealed seams of drywall sections due to infiltrating air. Many fire investigation reports, textbooks and standards inconsistently report degrees of damage, using a wide range of undefined modifiers, such as greater, lesser, heavy, light, minor, moderate, major, severe and large, in an attempt to distinguish between levels of damage that they observe and are trying to convey (DeHaan and Icove 2011; Lentini 2012; Madrzykowski and Fleischmann 2012; NFPA 2014; Shanley et al. Flashcards. The evolution in terminology clarifies how fire patterns became a more restricted definition and it is this bounded term that will be the focus of this literature review section. The most important finding from these tests is that the interpretation of all fire effects provides substantial evidence for the investigator to identify the correct area of origin (Gorbett et al. Fire investigation texts describe the characteristics of the lines of demarcation associated with a plume-generated pattern as a progression through triangular, columnar and conical patterns. He succinctly describes his process as direction of spread of the fire will be notedit will be upward, partially lateral, rarely downward, but its direction will indicate the general region of origin when properly interpreted. In the face of non-systematized approaches to solving complex problems, the current state of fire investigation, many other professions have turned to decision support frameworks, tools or methods. Additional file 1 outlining the variables for all experimental tests reviewed has been developed and also provided. Dissertation, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Gorbett G, Chapdelaine W (2014) Scientific Method Use, Application and Gap Analysis for Origin Determination. This method or a similar method should be further explored using the work done for gypsum wallboard (Gorbett et al. This review evaluates the historical and current literature on the topic, with a specific emphasis towards the research conducted over the past 80years related to fire patterns. Fire Research Station Note No. The researchers used ImageJ software and a Kodak gray scale and found good agreement between the optical measurement methods and smoke pattern images developed along wall surfaces. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Equally important is to determine whether the radiant heat transfer is sufficient to cause damage to nearby contents or wall surfaces. Essentially this work establishes a rudimentary decision matrix that uses pre-flashover and varying durations of post-flashover as the primary consideration in identifying the location and magnitude of damage within the compartment. The authors suggested that the investigator could evaluate the items involved and the differences of flammability of combustibles along the route of travel may explain the route of travel or spread (Straeter and Crawford 1955). These tests demonstrated similar findings as Carmans tests (2008) that significant heat flux and clean burn occurs on the wall directly across the room from the doorway. In the first edition of NFPA (1992) the investigator was cautioned, that no specific time of burning can be determined based solely upon depth of char. It is suggested from this literature review that the overall reasoning process for evaluating fire damage for determining an area of origin consists of the following seven steps (Gorbett 2015): Identifying the value in further analysis of a surface or compartment; Identification of the varying degrees of fire damage (DOFD) along the surfaces of the compartment and contents; Identifying clusters and trends of damage (fire patterns); Interpreting the causal factors for the generation of the fire patterns; Testing the hypothetical area(s) of origin; and. The literature identified that investigators use the damage in two different ways. 2012; Mealy et al. In March of 1997 four full-size compartment test fires were conducted in furnished bedrooms (Milke and Hill 1997). The average velocity of natural buoyancy driven flows or natural ventilation through the bottom of a door during ventilation-controlled conditions is approximately 1.52.0m/s (3.44.4 mph) (Kerber 2010; Quintiere and McCaffrey 1980). The three tests were conducted with identical contents and ventilation. The damage data used by fire investigators in origin determination starts with the ability of the investigator to observe varying damage along surfaces of contents, walls, ceiling, floor and structural members. The conclusion reached by the researchers was that it would appear that the major conclusion which can be drawn from this study is that ventilation conditions in the early stages of a fire can cause an anomalous fire spread, thus giving a false impression as to the point of origin (Custer and Wright 1984). This method was used to identify each fire pattern within the compartment, ascribe a direction or intensity to that damage and assign a directional arrow on a diagram to reflect this damage, however, no specific procedural details were provided on how to implement this analysis or how to interpret direction (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). Fire Clues: Glass - Glass fragments, windows, and light bulbs can provide clues to a fire. Encyclopedia Britannica Company, Chicago, www.Merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pattern, Pitts W (1994) The Global Equivalence Ratio Concept and the Prediction of Carbon Monoxide Formation in Enclosure Fires. The term related also is included to permit the linkage of the lines of demarcation with progressively increasing or decreasing degrees of damage, such as flow of a hot gas into/out of a compartment. 2003). The compartments were 12ft by 12ft with 8ft ceiling heights (3.6m3.6m2.4m) with a single door opening 3ft by 6ft-10in. Combining the definition of pattern with the current definition of fire patterns provides a better definition. Upper Layer-Generated Fire Pattern (fire origin was located along adjacent wall-fire test conducted at EKU by author). First, the upper layer-generated fire patterns are used by investigators in determining the extent to which the upper layer has descended in the compartment and that, because it is a heat source, is used to help describe other areas of damage within the compartment. This type of damage was first identified as being helpful at determining the area of origin by Straeter and Crawford (1955). Paper presented at the 8th International Conference, Fire and Materials 2003. Consequently, a new optical measurement method was developed to use with digital photographs and digital image analysis. However, an assumption can be made for fuel-controlled fires that higher temperatures will occur at the plume interface with any building or contents surface. Grant No. Mealy et al. The further the fuel item burning was from the wall surface, the lines of demarcation would be more subtle in contrast and would be more round in angle in the shape of a U. Kennedy and Kennedy (1985) were also the first to propose that damage would be in the shape of a triangular, columnar, or conical shape after the flame plume had intersected a wall surface within a compartment. As this smoke collides with cooler surfaces, it may deposit out of the heated gases onto wall, ceiling and content surfaces. Fire Technology 39:207224, Hopkins R, Gorbett G, Kennedy P (2007) Fire Pattern Persistence Through Post-Flashover Compartment Fires. Thirty-nine novice raters performed an analysis of damage to a wall surface, completing 66 ratings first without the DOFD method and second, repeated rating with the new DOFD method. 2008; Hopkins et al. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Carman S (2010) Clean Burn Fire Patterns A New Perspective for Investigators. Putorti (2001) performed a series of experiments that evaluated the damage to a variety of floor surfaces (carpet, wood and vinyl) with varying volumes of ignitable liquids used in the open. Some experimental work has been conducted in this area as well as predictive calculations (Jahn et al. Much of the earlier published research was focused on examining cross-sections of the wallboard, visibly determining the depth of calcination based on different bands of color within the cross-section (Posey and Posey 1983). Use of damage in fire investigation: a review of fire patterns analysis, research and future direction, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40038-015-0008-4, http://ncfs.ucf.edu/twgfex/docs/Scene_Survey_Results.pdf, http://www.forenseek.org/spip/?A-Decision-Support-System-for,46, www.Merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pattern, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0. Forensic Science International 147:4957, Boudreau J, Kwan Q, Faragher W, Denault G (1977) Arson and Arson Investigation-Survey and Assessment. 2014). Decision support frameworks are derived from the field of decision analysis, as well as from uncertainty analysis and risk analysis. An approximate 2-square foot (0.19m2) grid was established and the participants were asked to select the grid space that most represented their area of origin. Interpretation of the causal factors for the generation of the fire patterns was next appraised. Truncated cone fire patterns have been found in over 50% of all fire pattern tests. The use of depth of char and relating this depth to duration of burning has fluctuated as to its usefulness in fire investigations since the mid-1950s. 14, 4th edn. Fire Clues: Heat Shadows - Occur when heavy furniture shields part of a wall; can help determine the origin point. As such, fire investigators have written about the use of visible and measurable observations related to varying damage to wood for as long as fire investigation has been in existence (Rethoret 1945). Only later did the literature express this conical shape as two-dimensional shapes, including triangular shapes, columnar shapes, V-patterns, U-patterns and hourglass-patterns (Barracato 1979; Cooke and Ide 1985; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). The combustion of a fuel through diffusion flames is inherently oxygen limited by the diffusion reaction and the availability of only 21% of oxygen in air in well-ventilated fires. Schroeder later confirmed this assessment by performing a variety of constant heat flux and duration exposure tests on an assortment of wood samples in an attempt to determine if wood could be reliably evaluated by the fire investigator for intensity and duration (Schroeder 1999). Fire Science & Technology 9(2):514, Swab S (1985) Consideration of Depth of Char When Establishing Fire Burn Times. Lines of demarcation are the borders defining the differences in certain heat and smoke effects of the fire on various materials. Volume I, National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 802054, Gaithersburg, MD, Raiffa H (1968) Decision Analysis. The location of gasoline spilled was varied between the floor and on/around furniture items. California Privacy Statement, melting of plastics, oxidation of metals). National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST GCR-96-703, Gaithersburg, MD, Minnich T (2000) Results of TWGFEX Scene Survey., http://ncfs.ucf.edu/twgfex/docs/Scene_Survey_Results.pdf. However, other texts of the time indicated that damage to floor was an indicator of arson (Battle and Weston 1960; Fitch and Porter 1968). Investigations Institute, Florida (USA). location and elevation). In addition, this study identified that greater damage (clean burn) occurred at the seams between drywall sections within their tests when they were not covered with tape and mud, due to leakage through the unsealed openings. Heat Transfer and Turbulent Buoyant Convection 2:457472, McCaffrey B, Quintiere J, Harkleroad M (1981) Estimating room temperature and likelihood of flashover using fire test data correlation. Of course, apex is actually the antonym of the word desired here. As the fire continues to develop, the ceiling jet and the gases from the upper layer begin to have an intensified effect on the surfaces nearest the plume. In all cases, ignition of a gasoline spill next to an upholstered chair was used to initiate the fire. share common damage characteristics for the damage to transition from simply random areas of damage to being classified as a pattern requires that the damages are clustered near to each other and that the characteristics of the damage are similar. NFPA 921s original publication followed this trend and warned, irregular, curved, or pool shaped patterns on floors and floor coverings cannot always be reliably identified as resulting from ignitable liquids on the basis of observation alone (NFPA 1992). The first reference that can be identified related to rejecting this misconception was a discussion by DeHaan (1983). The correct word is nadir, but to remain consistent with these texts apex will be used. Fire plume generated fire patterns are the most important to identify correctly. The definition of fire patterns evolved to the visible or measurable physical changes, or identifiable shapes, formed by a fire effect or group of fire effects (NFPA 2008). National Institute of Standards and Technology, Grant 60NAN81D1142, Gaithersburg, MD, Schroeder R (1999) Post-Fire Analysis of Construction Materials. For more information on this term, see the interFIRE VR Resource File . Their use of this method was stated to ensure that an investigator would be required to provide an indication of the degree of accuracy, as well as provide an area for excavation. This damage begins to obscure some of the earlier lines of demarcation from the upper layer. There was no significant damage identified around the window ventilation, as the researchers discussed that this vent served primarily as an outflow for the heated gases, while the doorway served as the inflow due to the location of the neutral plane. Incident heat flux to wall, floor, or ceiling surfaces is dependent on the HRR of the fuel and standoff distance between the flame plume and the surface of interest. The gauge is capable of reading measurements to 0.0005 (0.01mm). However, if the fire pattern is incorrectly assigned as a plume generated pattern, then the entire origin hypothesis will most likely be incorrect (Carman 2008). Since 1992, NFPA 921 has established the de facto standard of care for the fire investigation profession, yet it lacks specific procedures for origin determination (Gorbett and Chapdelaine 2014). 1997). In 1997 The United States Fire Administration (USFA), in conjunction with the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Building and Fire Research Laboratory (NIST-BFRL) launched the fire pattern research committee and produced the USFA Fire Pattern Test report (Shanley et al. 1997). The most emphasis was placed on combustibles involved and openings and ventilation. Physical changes include melting, deformation, expansion, or loss of tensile strength. As the definition from the term fire pattern has evolved and will continue to evolve, it is important to define what a pattern is first. They also suggested that the level of heat lines on the walls may be traced back from the termination point toward the beginningordinarily they will be lower and lower on the walls as you approach the areas where the greatest heat was generated (Straeter and Crawford 1955). Cox discussed the importance of separating data and the interpretation of that data when discussing this new method. 1997). endstream endobj startxref The surface then redirects the buoyant flow and its momentum across the bottom of the ceiling creating a ceiling jet, which begins to descend from the ceiling as an upper layer (Hicks et al. The Mealy, Wolfe and Gottuk study used the Ngu force gauge to ensure that the user performed their measurements with similar force (Mealy et al. New method of using digital image analysis further research this term, the., deformation, expansion, or loss of tensile strength equally important is to whether! 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Heat and smoke effects of the literature identified that investigators use the damage in different.

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